Depression | Questionnaires (e.g. HADS depression domain score ≥8, GADS score >5), psychologist/liaison psychiatrist assessment | CBT, pharmacotherapy | I |
Anxiety | Questionnaires (e.g. HADS anxiety domain score ≥8), psychologist/liaison psychiatrist assessment | Pharmacotherapy (i.e., anxiolytics/antidepressants), breathing retraining, CBT | I |
Dysfunctional breathing | Nijmegen Questionnaire Total score ≥23, B-PAT (breathing pattern assessment tool) score >4, breath holding time, manual assessment of respiratory motion (MARM) | Breathing retraining | I |
Physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour | Actigraphy, International Physical Activity Questionnaire | Pulmonary rehabilitation, physical activity, breaking bouts of sedentary activity | I |
Overweight/obesity | Overweight: BMI 25–29.9 kg·m−2 Obesity: BMI ≥30 kg·m−2 | Caloric restriction, exercise, bariatric surgery, pharmacotherapy | I–II |
Deconditioning | Cardiopulmonary exercise testing, 6MWT | Structured exercise programme, rehabilitation | I+, II |
Rhinosinusitis | History and examination, imaging (sinus CT), Sino-Nasal Outcome Test (SNOT-22) | Topical corticosteroids, leukotriene receptor antagonists, antihistamines, surgery, intranasal saline lavage | II |
VCD | Questionnaires (e.g. Pittsburgh ≥4), laryngoscopy, dynamic neck CT, inspiratory flow–volume curve | Speech pathology intervention, laryngeal botulinum toxin, gabapentin/pregabalin, psychology/psychiatry | II |
Systemic inflammation | Leukocyte count >9×109 cells·L−1or high-sensitivity CRP >3 mg·L−1 | Statins¶ | II |
Anaemia | Males: Hb <140 g·L−1 Females: Hb <120 g·L−1 | Haematinic (iron/B12) supplementation | I+, IV |
Cardiovascular disease | Doppler echocardiography, Electrocardiogram, brain natriuretic peptide | Pharmacotherapy (β-blockers, diuretics, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors), surgery | II |
GORD | Questionnaires, gastrointestinal endoscopy, pH monitoring | Anti-reflux lifestyle measures, antacids, proton pump inhibitors, fundoplication surgery | II |
OSA | Questionnaires (i.e., STOP-Bang Questionnaire), polysomnography | CPAP, mandibular advancement splint, positional therapy, weight loss | III-2 |