Current upper airway and maxillofacial surgeries for obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA)
| Intervention site | Main procedures | Main indications |
| Nose | Septoplasty Turbinoplasty | For subjects with persistent nasal obstruction, mainly to improve feasibility of CPAP or MAD |
| Nasopharynx | Adenoidectomy | Adenoid hypertrophy |
| Oropharynx | Tonsillectomy Barbed reposition pharyngoplasty (BRP) Expansion sphincter pharyngoplasty (ESP) Soft palate RFITT | Tonsillar hypertrophy; in adults, mainly with other procedures Retropalatal obstruction Retropalatal obstruction Retropalatal obstruction in mild OSA |
| Hyoid bone | Hyoidthyroidpexia | Hypopharyngeal obstruction |
| Tongue | Tongue RFITT Transoral robotic surgery (TORS) Tongue suspension | Moderate macroglossia and retrolingual obstruction, mainly in mild-to-moderate OSA, or as part of multilevel surgery |
| Maxilla/mandible | Maxillomandibular advancement Maxillary expansion | Mandibular deficiency, severe OSA with obstruction at multiple sites |
| Larynx | Epiglottopexy | Obstruction at the epiglottic level |
| Trachea | Tracheostomy | Only in emergency situations; rarely performed when other treatments are not feasible in severe OSA |
| Multisite | Variable combined procedures | Obstruction at multiple sites in moderate-to-severe OSA |
CPAP: continuous positive airway pressure; MAD: mandibular advancement device; RFITT: radiofrequency interstitial thermotherapy.